What Is the Right to Life? Philosophy, Ethics & Debate

Definition and Scope

The right to life is the most fundamental of all rights. It is the right not to be killed unjustly and the right to have one's life protected by the state. The right to life is recognized in major international human rights instruments, including Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states that "everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person."

Philosophically, the right to life raises a series of profound questions. What is the moral basis of the right to life? Does it apply to all human beings equally, or does it depend on some property such as consciousness, self-awareness, or rationality? How should conflicts between the right to life and other rights be resolved? What are the legitimate exceptions to the right to life?

Locke's Natural Right to Life

John Locke provided the classic philosophical foundation for the right to life. In Two Treatises of Government, Locke argued that all individuals possess a natural right to life, liberty, and property. The right to life is inherent in human nature: it is not granted by the state but precedes it. The purpose of government is to protect this right, and a government that violates it loses its legitimacy.

Rawls's Equal Basic Liberties

John Rawls incorporated the right to life into his theory of justice as fairness. The first principle of justice requires that each person has an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties. The right to life is the most fundamental of these liberties, as it is the precondition for the exercise of all other rights. Rawls's theory provides a framework for understanding the right to life within the context of a just society.

Dworkin's Sacredness of Life

Ronald Dworkin offered a distinctive account of the right to life based on the concept of the sacredness of life. In Life's Dominion, Dworkin argued that the right to life is not simply a right to continued existence but a recognition of the inherent value and dignity of human life. Dworkin's analysis provides a framework for understanding the abortion debate as a conflict between different interpretations of the value of life rather than between competing rights.

Sen's Capability Approach

Amartya Sen's capability approach offers a framework for understanding the right to life in terms of what people are actually able to do and be. The right to life, in Sen's view, is not merely the right not to be killed but the right to have the capabilities necessary for a flourishing human life. This includes access to adequate nutrition, healthcare, education, and social support.

Nozick's Side Constraints

Robert Nozick offered a powerful libertarian account of the right to life. In Anarchy, State, and Utopia, Nozick argued that rights function as side constraints on the actions of others. The right to life is a side constraint that prohibits the state from killing innocent people, even for the sake of achieving good consequences. Nozick's theory provides a strong defense of individual rights against utilitarian calculations.

The Abortion Debate

The right to life is at the center of the abortion debate. Those who oppose abortion argue that the right to life applies to fetuses from the moment of conception. Those who defend abortion rights argue that the right to life does not apply to fetuses, or that the right to life of the fetus is outweighed by the woman's right to bodily autonomy. The abortion debate reveals the difficulty of defining the boundaries of the right to life.

Capital Punishment and Euthanasia

The right to life also raises questions about capital punishment and euthanasia. Defenders of capital punishment argue that the state may permissibly take the life of those who have committed the most serious crimes. Opponents argue that the right to life is inalienable and cannot be forfeited. The euthanasia debate asks whether the right to life includes a right to die -- the right to choose the manner and timing of one's own death.

The right to life remains the most fundamental and contested of all rights. Its philosophical defense requires careful attention to the moral status of human beings, the limits of state power, and the value of human existence.