Leo Strauss

Biography

Leo Strauss was born on September 20, 1899, in Kirchhain, Hesse, Germany. He studied at the University of Hamburg, where he earned his doctorate under Ernst Cassirer, and later worked as a research assistant at the University of Berlin. With the rise of the Nazi regime, Strauss, who was Jewish, fled Germany, first to France and England, and then to the United States.

Strauss taught at the New School for Social Research in New York and later became a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, where he trained a generation of students who would become influential in American political thought. He died on October 18, 1973, in Annapolis, Maryland.

Historical Background

Strauss's intellectual development was shaped by the crisis of the Weimar Republic and the rise of totalitarianism. He witnessed the collapse of liberal democracy in Germany and the failure of modern rationalism to provide a compelling defense of human freedom and dignity. This experience led him to question the foundations of modern political philosophy.

Strauss argued that the crisis of modernity was rooted in the rejection of classical natural right by modern thinkers such as Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Locke. The modern project, which sought to conquer nature and achieve universal enlightenment, had led instead to nihilism, historicism, and the erosion of moral standards. Strauss sought to recover the classical understanding of political philosophy as a way of addressing this crisis.

Core Ideas

Natural Right and History

Strauss's most influential work, Natural Right and History (1953), argues that the idea of natural right — a standard of justice derived from nature rather than convention — is essential for political philosophy. He traces the development of natural right from its classical formulation by Plato and Aristotle through its transformation by modern thinkers. Strauss argues that the modern rejection of natural right has led to moral relativism and the inability to distinguish between just and unjust regimes.

The Quarrel Between the Ancients and the Moderns

Strauss framed the history of political philosophy as a quarrel between ancient and modern thought. The ancients, led by Plato and Aristotle, understood political philosophy as the quest for the best regime and the cultivation of human excellence. The moderns, beginning with Machiavelli, lowered the sights of political philosophy, seeking not the highest human good but the satisfaction of the most basic human desires.

Esoteric Writing

Strauss argued that many premodern philosophers employed esoteric writing — a technique of conveying different meanings to different audiences. Philosophers wrote exoterically to protect themselves from persecution and esoterically to communicate their true teachings to careful readers. This insight transformed the interpretation of classical texts and remains one of Strauss's most controversial contributions.

Athens vs Jerusalem

Strauss explored the tension between reason (Athens) and revelation (Jerusalem) as two fundamental sources of moral and political authority. He argued that the conflict between philosophy and religion is irresolvable and that the attempt to synthesize them, as in medieval Christian philosophy, inevitably fails.

Major Works

Natural Right and History (1953) is Strauss's most important work. It develops his critique of modern political philosophy and argues for the recovery of classical natural right. The book includes influential readings of Max Weber, Edmund Burke, and the classical tradition.

Persecution and the Art of Writing (1952) argues for the importance of esoteric writing in the history of philosophy. Thoughts on Machiavelli (1958) offers a controversial reading of Machiavelli as the founder of modern political philosophy. The City and Man (1964) examines Aristotle's Politics, Plato's Republic, and Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War.

Philosophical Influence

Strauss's influence on American political thought has been enormous. His students, including Allan Bloom, Harvey Mansfield, and Walter Berns, became leading figures in conservative political philosophy. Strauss's work has been invoked by neoconservative intellectuals and policymakers, though Strauss himself was a careful scholar who avoided direct political engagement.

In academic philosophy, Strauss's work has been controversial. Critics argue that his interpretation of esoteric writing is unverifiable and that his reading of modern philosophy is tendentious. Supporters argue that he recovered important dimensions of political philosophy that had been neglected by analytic philosophy and positivist social science.

Related Concepts

Strauss's thought is closely connected to debates about the foundations of liberal democracy, the relationship between philosophy and politics, and the interpretation of canonical texts. His critique of historicism and relativism resonates with contemporary discussions of moral realism and the possibility of universal justice. His recovery of classical political philosophy has influenced the revival of virtue ethics and the study of the best regime.